Tugas: Code
A. DIGLOSSIA
Diglossia
di·glos·si·a
a situation in which two languages (or two varieties of the same language) are used under different conditions within a community, often by the same speakers. The term is usually applied to languages with distinct “high” and “low” (colloquial) varieties, such as Arabic.
- In the classic diglossic situation, two varieties of a language, such as standard French and Haitian creole French, exist alongside each other in a single society. Each variety has its own fixed functions--one a 'high,' prestigious variety, and one a 'low,' or colloquial, one. Using the wrong variety in the wrong situation would be socially inappropriate, almost on the level of delivering the BBC's nightly news in broad Scots.
"Children learn the low variety as a native language; in diglossic cultures, it is the language of home, the family, the streets and marketplaces, friendship, and solidarity. By contrast, the high variety is spoken by few or none as a first language. It must be taught in school. The high variety is used for public speaking, formal lectures and higher education, television broadcasts, sermons, liturgies, and writing. (Often the low variety has no written form.)"High (H) and Low (L) Varieties
"A very significant aspect of diglossia is the different patterns of language acquisition associated with the High [H] and Low [L] dialects. . . . Most reasonably well-educated people in diglossic communities can recite the rules of H grammar, but not the rules for L. On the other hand, they unconsciously apply the grammatical rules of L in their normal speech with near perfection, whereas the corresponding ability in H is limited. In many diglossic communities, if speakers are asked, they will tell you L has no grammar, and that L speech is the result of the failure to follow the rules of H grammar."
(Ralph W. Fasold, Introduction to Sociolinguistics: The Sociolinguistics of Society, Basil Blackwell, 1984)"Diglossia reinforces social distinctions. It is used to assert social position and to keep people in their place, particularly those at the lower end of the social hierarchy. Any move to extend the L variety . . . is likely to be perceived to be a direct threat to those who want to maintain traditional relationships and the existing power structure." Diglossia in the U.S."Ethnicity typically includes a heritage language, particularly among groups whose members include recent arrivals. A heritage language can play a significant role in a community despite the fact that not all members actually speak it. Relatively balanced, native bilinguals, though being designated native speakers of English, may have younger siblings or other family members who speak little or no English. Consequently, they may not use English all the time, particularly in situations of diglossia in which language varieties are compartmentalized according to situations of usage.
"The home is also one likely place for a social dialect (or vernacular) to develop that can, consequently, spread throughout the community. Children will undoubtedly bring that language variety with them into the classroom. Consequently, educators need to consider the relationship of SAE andnonstandard varieties of English such as Ebonics (African American Vernacular English--AAVE), Chicano English (ChE), and Vietnamese English (VE), all recognized social dialects. Children speaking these varieties may be counted as native speakers of English, despite the fact that they may also be considered LM [language minority] students entitled to certain rights as a result."
B,Bilingualism
is the ability of an individual or the members of a community to use two languages effectively.
More than half of the world's population is bilingual or multilingual: "56% of Europeans are bilingual, while 38% of the population in Great Britain, 35% in Canada, and 17% in the United States are bilingual" (Multicultural America: A Multimedia Encyclopedia, 2013).
Bilingualism as the Norm
"Bilingualism--more generally, multilingualism--is a major fact of life in the world today. To begin with, the world's estimated 5,000 languages are spoken in the world's 200 sovereign states (or 25 languages per state), so that communication among the citizens of many of the world's countries clearly requires extensive bi- (if not multi-)lingualism. In fact, David Crystal (1997) estimates that two-thirds of the world's children grow up in a bilingual environment. Considering only bilingualism involving English, the statistics that Crystal has gathered indicate that, of the approximately 570 million people world-wide who speak English, over 41 percent or 235 million are bilingual in English and some other language. . . . One must conclude that, far from being exceptional, as many lay people believe, bilingualism/multilingualism--which, of course, goes hand in hand with multiculturalism in many cases--is currently the rule throughout the world and will become increasingly so in the future."
"Bilingualism--more generally, multilingualism--is a major fact of life in the world today. To begin with, the world's estimated 5,000 languages are spoken in the world's 200 sovereign states (or 25 languages per state), so that communication among the citizens of many of the world's countries clearly requires extensive bi- (if not multi-)lingualism. In fact, David Crystal (1997) estimates that two-thirds of the world's children grow up in a bilingual environment. Considering only bilingualism involving English, the statistics that Crystal has gathered indicate that, of the approximately 570 million people world-wide who speak English, over 41 percent or 235 million are bilingual in English and some other language. . . . One must conclude that, far from being exceptional, as many lay people believe, bilingualism/multilingualism--which, of course, goes hand in hand with multiculturalism in many cases--is currently the rule throughout the world and will become increasingly so in the future."
Global Multilingualism
"The political history of the 19th and 20th centuries and the ideology of 'one state--one nation--one language' have given rise to the idea that monolingualism has always been the default or normal case in Europe and more or less a precondition for political loyalty. Facing this situation, it has been overlooked that the vast majority of the world's population--in whatever form or conditions--is multilingual. This is quite obvious when we look at the linguistic maps of Africa, Asia or Southern America at any given time."
Individual and Societal Bilingualism
"Bilingualism exists as a possession of an individual. It is also possible to talk about bilingualism as a characteristic of a group or community of people [societal bilingualism]. Bilinguals and multilinguals are most often located in groups, communities or in a particular region (e.g. Catalans in Spain). . . . [C]o-existing languages may be in a process of rapid change, living in harmony or one rapidly advancing at the cost of the other, or sometimes in conflict. Where many language minorities exist, there is often language shift . . .."
Foreign Language Instruction in the U.S.
"For decades, U.S. policy makers, business leaders, educators, and research organizations have decried our students’ lack of foreign language skills and called for better language instruction. Yet, despite these calls for action, we have fallen further behind the rest of the world in preparing our students to communicate effectively in languages other than English.
"I believe the main reason for this disparity is that foreign languages are treated by our public education system as less important than math, science and English. In contrast, E.U. governments expect their citizens to become fluent in at least two languages plus their native tongue. . . .
"[F]oreign language instruction in the U.S. is frequently considered a 'luxury,' a subject taught to college-bound students, more frequently in affluent than poor school districts, and readily cut when math or reading test scores drop or budget cuts loom."
"For decades, U.S. policy makers, business leaders, educators, and research organizations have decried our students’ lack of foreign language skills and called for better language instruction. Yet, despite these calls for action, we have fallen further behind the rest of the world in preparing our students to communicate effectively in languages other than English.
"I believe the main reason for this disparity is that foreign languages are treated by our public education system as less important than math, science and English. In contrast, E.U. governments expect their citizens to become fluent in at least two languages plus their native tongue. . . .
"[F]oreign language instruction in the U.S. is frequently considered a 'luxury,' a subject taught to college-bound students, more frequently in affluent than poor school districts, and readily cut when math or reading test scores drop or budget cuts loom."
Example:
a. An example of being bilingual is a person who can speak both English and Spanish.
b. An example of bilingual is bilinqual education, when a student is taught in both English and the language of their native countr
C. MULTILINGUALISM
Multilingualism is the ability of an individual speaker or acommunity of speakers to communicate effectively in three or more languages. Contrast with monolingualism, the ability to use only one language. A person who can speak multiple languages is known as a polyglot or a multilingual.
Multilingualism as the Norm
"We estimate that most of the human language users in the world speak more than one language, i.e. they are at least bilingual. In quantitative terms, then, monolingualism may be the exception and multilingualism the norm. . . .
"[I]t is a reasonable assumption that the marginal role research on multingualism has played within linguistics until some decades ago is a result of the monolingual bias of (particularly) European thinking about language which came into being during a phase of European history in which the nation states defined themselves not in the least by the one (standard) language which was chosen to be the symbolic expression of their unity. . . .
"[I]t can be argued that what we perceive as the problems surrounding multilingualism today are to a large degree a consequence of the monolingualism demanded, fostered and cherished by the nation states in Europe and their knock-offs around the world."
"We estimate that most of the human language users in the world speak more than one language, i.e. they are at least bilingual. In quantitative terms, then, monolingualism may be the exception and multilingualism the norm. . . .
"[I]t is a reasonable assumption that the marginal role research on multingualism has played within linguistics until some decades ago is a result of the monolingual bias of (particularly) European thinking about language which came into being during a phase of European history in which the nation states defined themselves not in the least by the one (standard) language which was chosen to be the symbolic expression of their unity. . . .
"[I]t can be argued that what we perceive as the problems surrounding multilingualism today are to a large degree a consequence of the monolingualism demanded, fostered and cherished by the nation states in Europe and their knock-offs around the world."
Bilingualism and Multilingualism
"Current research . . . begins by emphasizing the quantitative distinction between multilingualism and bilingualism and the greater complexity and diversity of the factors involved in acquisition and use where more than two languages are involved (Cenoz 2000; Hoffmann 2001a; Herdina and Jessner 2002). Thus, it is pointed out that not only do multilinguals have larger overall linguistic repertoires, but the range of the language situations in which multilinguals can participate, making appropriate language choices, is more extensive. Herdina & Jessner (2000b:93) refer to this capacity as 'the multilingual art of balancing communicative requirements with language resources.' This wider ability associated with the acquisition of more than two languages has also been argued to distinguish multilinguals in qualitative terms. One . . . qualitative distinction seems to lie in the area of strategies. Kemp (2007), for example, reports that multilingual learners' learning strategies differ from those of monolingual students learning their first foreign language."
"Current research . . . begins by emphasizing the quantitative distinction between multilingualism and bilingualism and the greater complexity and diversity of the factors involved in acquisition and use where more than two languages are involved (Cenoz 2000; Hoffmann 2001a; Herdina and Jessner 2002). Thus, it is pointed out that not only do multilinguals have larger overall linguistic repertoires, but the range of the language situations in which multilinguals can participate, making appropriate language choices, is more extensive. Herdina & Jessner (2000b:93) refer to this capacity as 'the multilingual art of balancing communicative requirements with language resources.' This wider ability associated with the acquisition of more than two languages has also been argued to distinguish multilinguals in qualitative terms. One . . . qualitative distinction seems to lie in the area of strategies. Kemp (2007), for example, reports that multilingual learners' learning strategies differ from those of monolingual students learning their first foreign language."
Are Americans Lazily Monolingual?
"The celebrated multilingualism of not just Europe but also the rest of the world may be exaggerated. The hand-wringing about America’s supposed linguistic weakness is often accompanied by the claim that monolinguals make up a small worldwide minority. The Oxford linguist Suzanne Romaine has claimed that bilingualism and multilingualism 'are a normal and unremarkable necessity of everyday life for the majority of the world’s population.'
"But the statistics tell a murkier story. Recently, the Stockholm Universitylinguist Mikael Parkvall sought out data on global bilingualism and ran into problems. The reliable numbers that do exist cover only 15 percent of the world’s 190-odd countries, and less than one-third of the world’s population. In those countries, Mr. Parkvall calculated (in a study not yet published), the average number of languages spoken either natively or non-natively per person is 1.58. Piecing together the available data for the rest of the world as best he could, he estimated that 80 percent of people on the planet speak 1.69 languages--not high enough to conclude that the average person is bilingual.
"Multilinguals may outnumber monolinguals, but it’s not clear by how much. The average American may be no more monolingual or less multilingual than any other average person elsewhere on the planet. At the very least, we can’t say for sure--not in any language."
"The celebrated multilingualism of not just Europe but also the rest of the world may be exaggerated. The hand-wringing about America’s supposed linguistic weakness is often accompanied by the claim that monolinguals make up a small worldwide minority. The Oxford linguist Suzanne Romaine has claimed that bilingualism and multilingualism 'are a normal and unremarkable necessity of everyday life for the majority of the world’s population.'
"But the statistics tell a murkier story. Recently, the Stockholm Universitylinguist Mikael Parkvall sought out data on global bilingualism and ran into problems. The reliable numbers that do exist cover only 15 percent of the world’s 190-odd countries, and less than one-third of the world’s population. In those countries, Mr. Parkvall calculated (in a study not yet published), the average number of languages spoken either natively or non-natively per person is 1.58. Piecing together the available data for the rest of the world as best he could, he estimated that 80 percent of people on the planet speak 1.69 languages--not high enough to conclude that the average person is bilingual.
"Multilinguals may outnumber monolinguals, but it’s not clear by how much. The average American may be no more monolingual or less multilingual than any other average person elsewhere on the planet. At the very least, we can’t say for sure--not in any language."
New Multilingualisms
"[I]n paying attention to the language practices of young people in urban settings, we see new multilingualisms emerging, as the young people create meanings with their diverse linguistic repertoires. We see the young people (and their parents and teachers) using their eclectic array of linguistic resources to create, parody, play, contest, endorse, evaluate, challenge, tease, disrupt, bargain and otherwise negotiate their social worlds."
"[I]n paying attention to the language practices of young people in urban settings, we see new multilingualisms emerging, as the young people create meanings with their diverse linguistic repertoires. We see the young people (and their parents and teachers) using their eclectic array of linguistic resources to create, parody, play, contest, endorse, evaluate, challenge, tease, disrupt, bargain and otherwise negotiate their social worlds."
The ability to use multiple languages is known as multilingualism.
• able to speak and understand several languages
• using or expressed in several languages
Example:
a. An example of something multilingual is a meeting of the United Nations.
b. An example of someone multilingual is someone who speaks English, French and Japanese.
Code switching is The practice of alternating between two or more languages or varieties of language in conversation:
Example
the conversational code-switching of the German-American bilingual community
REFERENCE
(Fredric Field, Bilingualism in the USA: The Case of the Chicano-Latino Community. John Benjamins, 2011)
(Adrian Blackledge and Angela Creese, Multilingualism: A Critical Perspective. Continuum, 2010)
(Michael Erard, "Are We Really Monolingual?" The New York Times Sunday Review, January 14, 2012)
(Larissa Aronin and David Singleton, Multilingualism. John Benjamins, 2012)
(Colin Baker and Sylvia Prys Jones, Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education. Multilingual Matters, 1998)
(Peter Auer and Li Wei, "Introduction: Multilingualism as a Problem? Monolingualism as a Problem?" Handbook of Multilingualism and Multilingual Communication. Mouton de Gruyter, 2007)
(Kurt Braunmüller and Gisella Ferraresi, "Introduction." Aspects of Multilingualism in European Language History. John Benjamins, 2003)
(Kurt Braunmüller and Gisella Ferraresi, "Introduction." Aspects of Multilingualism in European Language History. John Benjamins, 2003)
(Tej K. Bhatia and William C. Ritchie, "Introduction."
(Robert Lane Greene, You Are What You Speak. Delacorte, 2011)
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